Reflections on epigenetics, lockdown, violence and stress in children and adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic
Main Article Content
Abstract
Epigenetics is the study of how the environment influences gene expression. The social context, experiences, parenting style, diet, the type of relationship one has with others, are environmental elements that can modify gene expression without DNA alteration occurring. However, this modification in expression is susceptible to being inherited and significantly influencing people's functioning, hence the importance of studying and handling it. In this context, it is necessary to ask what will be the epigenetic consequences of adverse experiences in children and adolescents. Evidence suggests that they are in a vulnerable position to present problems in their physical and mental health as a result of epigenetic modifications.
Article Details
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
References
Bhatia, A. Fabbri, C., Cerna-Turoff, I., Turner, E., Lokot, M., Warria, A., Tuladhar, S., Tanton, C., Knight, L., Lees, S., Cislaghi, B., Bhabha, J., Peterman, A., Guedes, A., & Devries, K. (2021). Violence against children during the COVID-19 pandemic. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 99, 730-738. http://dx.doi.org/10.2471/BLT.20.283051
Bourgault, S., Peterman, A., & O’Donnell, M. (2021). Violence against women and children during COVID-19 – one year on and 100 papers in a fourth research round up. Washington: Center for Global Development. https://www.cgdev.org/sites/default/files/vawc-fourth-roundup.pdf
Bullinger, L. R., Marcus, S., Reuben, K., Whitaker, D., & Self-Brown, S. (2022). Evaluating child maltreatment and family violence risk during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Using a telehealth home visiting program as a conduit to families. Infant Mental Health Journal, 43(1), 143-158. https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.21968
Cadet, J. L. (2016). Epigenetics of Stress, Addiction, and Resilience: Therapeutic Implications. Molecular Neurobiology, 53(1), 545-560. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12035-014-9040-y
Cavalli, G., & Heard, E. (2019). Advances in epigenetics link genetics to the environment and disease. Nature, 571(7766), 489-499. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1411-0
Czeisler, M. É., Lane, R. I., Petrosky, E., Wiley, J. F., Christensen, A., Njai, R., Weaver, M. D.; Robbins, R., Facer-Childs, E. R., Barger, L. K., Czeisler, C. A., Howard, M. E., Rajaratnam, S. M. W. (2020). Mental health, substance use, and suicidal ideation during the COVID-19 pandemic - United States, June 24–30, 2020. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 69(32), 1049-1057. http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6932a1
Dabi Wake, A., & Rani Kandula, U. (2022). The global prevalence and its associated factors toward domestic violence against women and children during COVID-19 pandemic—“The shadow pandemic”: A review of cross-sectional studies. Women’s Health, 18, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1177/17455057221095536
Ebert, C., & Steinert, J. I. (2021). Prevalence and risk factors of violence against women and children during COVID-19, Germany. Bulletin of World Health Organization, 99(6), 429-438. http://dx.doi.org/10.2471/BLT.20.270983
Edlow, A. G., Castro, V. M., Shook, L. L, Kaimal, A. J., & Perlis, R. H. (2022). Neurodevelopmental Outcomes at 1 Year in Infants of Mothers Who Tested Positive for SARS-CoV-2 During Pregnancy. JAMA Network Open, 5(6), e2215787. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.15787
Fond, G., Nemani, K., Etchecopar-Etchart, D., Loundou, A., Goff, D. C., Won, Lee, S., Lancon, C., Auquier, P., Baumstarck, K., Llorca, P. M., Yon, D. K., & Boyer, L. (2021). Association Between Mental Health Disorders and Mortality Among Patients With COVID-19 in 7 Countries. A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry, 78(11), 1208-1217. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2021.2274
Fondo de las Naciones Unidas para la Infancia (UNICEF). (s. f.). El impacto del COVID-19 en la salud mental de adolescentes y jóvenes. Disponible en https://www.unicef.org/lac/el-impacto-del-covid-19-en-la-salud-mental-de-adolescentes-y-j%C3%B3venes.
Gaitán-Rossi, P., Vilar-Compte, M., Teruel, G. & Pérez-Escamilla, R. (2020). Food insecurity measurement and prevalence estimates during the COVID-19 pandemic in a repeated cross-sectional survey in Mexico. Public Health Nutrition, 24(3) https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980020004000
Gerra, G., Zaimovic, A., Castaldini, L., Garofano, L., Manfredini, M., Somaini, L., Leonardi, C., Gerra, M.L. & Donnini, C. (2010). Relevance of perceived childhood neglect, 5-htt gene variants and hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal axis dysregulation to substance abuse susceptibility. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 153B(3), 715-722. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajmg.b.31038
Hillis, S. D., Unwin, H. J. T., Chen, Y., Cluver, L., Sherr, L., Goldman, P. S., Ratmann, O., Donnelly, C. A., Bhatt, S., Villaveces, A., Butchart, A., Bachman, G., Rawlings, L., Green, P., Nelson, C. A., III; Flaxman, S. (2021). Global minimum estimates of children affected by COVID-19-associated orphanhood and deaths of caregivers: a modelling study. The Lancet, 398, 391-402. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)01253-8
Howard-Jones, A. R., Bowen, A. C., Danchin, M., Koirala, A., Sharma, K., Yeoh, D. K., Burgner, D. P., Crawford, N. W., Goeman, E., Gray, P. E., Hsu, P., Kuek, S., McMullan, B. J., Tosif, S., Wurzel, D., & Britton, P. N. (2021). COVID-19 in children: I. Epidemiology, prevention and indirect impacts. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health, 58(1), 39-45. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpc.15791
Kim, P., Evans, G. W., Ansgtadt, M., Shaun Ho, S., Sripada, C. S., Swain, J E., Liberzon, Luan Phan, K., (2013). Effects of childhood poverty and chronic stress on emotion regulatory brain function in adulthood. PNAS, 10(46), 18442-18447. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1308240110
Masiero, M., Mazzocco, K., Harnois, C., Cropley, M. & Pravettoni, G. (2020). From individual to social trauma: Sources of everyday trauma in Italy, The US and UK during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 21(5), 513-519. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299732.2020.1787296
Meherali, S., Punjani, N., Louie-Poon, S., Abdul Rahim, K., Das, J. K., Salam, R. A., Lassi, Z. S. (2021). Mental Health of Children and Adolescents Amidst COVID-19 and Past Pandemics: A Rapid Systematic Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(7), 3432. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18073432
Nemeroff, C. B. (2016). Paradise Lost: The Neurobiological and Clinical Consequences of Child Abuse and Neglect. Neuron, 8(5), 892- 909. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2016.01.019
Nicolini, H., & De la Fuente, J. R. (2022). Psiquiatria y Salud Mental. En: C. Halabe, Z. Robledo, & G. Fajardo. (Eds.), Síndrome post-COVID-19 (47-60 pp.). Editorial Médica Panamericana
Organización de las Naciones Unidas-Mujeres (2020). Violencia doméstica durante la COVID-19. Herramienta de orientación para empleadores, empleadoras y empresas. Disponible en https://mexico.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/Field%20Office%20Mexico/Documentos/Publicaciones/2020/Junio%202020/Violencia%20domstica%20durante%20la%20COVID19%20Herramienta%20de%20orientacin%20para%20empleadores%20empleadoras%20y%20empre.pdf
Provenzi, L., Mambretti, F., Villa, M., Grumi, S., Citterio, A., Bertazzoli, E., Biasucci, G., Decembrino, L., Falcone, R., Gardella, B., Longo, M. R., Nacinovich, R., Pisoni, C., Prefumo, F., Orcesi, S., Scelsa, B., Giorda, R., Borgatti, R. (2021). Hidden pandemic: COVID-19-related stress, SLC6A4 methylation, and infants’ temperament at 3 months. Scientific Reports, 11, 15658, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-95053-z
Red Nacional de Refugios. (2020). Boletín informativo: “Cuatro meses de confinamiento por COVID-19 y las violencias contra las mujeres, niñas y niños continúan en aumento”. https://cieg.unam.mx/covid-genero/pdf/datos/violencia/71-rnr.pdf
Sanz, M. J. M. (2015). Epigenética y trastornos psiquiátricos. Pediatría Integral, 19(8), 524-531. https://cdn.pediatriaintegral.es/wp-content/uploads/2015/xix08/01/n8-524-531_20aniv.pdf
Shoji, H. & Kato, K. (2009). Maternal care affects the development of maternal behavior in inbred mice. Developmental Psychobiology, 51(4), 345-357. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.20375
Straight, B., Fisher, G., Needham, B. L., Naugle, A., Olungah, C., Wantijirattikal, P., Root, C., Farman, J. Barkman, T. & Lalancette, C. (2020). Lifetime stress and war exposure timing may predict methylation changes at NR3C1 based on a pilot study in a warrior cohort in a small-scale society in Kenya. American Journal of Human Biology, 33(4), e23515. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.23515
Trivedi, M. S., Abreu, M M., Sarria, L., Rose, N., Ahmed, N., Beljanski, V., Flethcer, M. A., Klimas, N. & Nathanson, L. (2019). Alterations in DNA Methylation Status Associated with Gulf War Illness. DNA and Cell Biology, 38(6), 561-571. https://doi.org/10.1089/dna.2018.4469
Valdez-Santiago, R., Villalobos-Hernández, A. L., Arenas-Monreal, L., Flores, K. & Ramos-Lira, L. (2021). Violencia en el hogar contra mujeres adultas durante el confinamiento por la pandemia de COVID-19 en México. Salud Publica de México, 63(6), 782-788. https://doi.org/10.21149/13244
Wang, Q. Q., Kaelber, D. C., Xu, R., & Volkow, N. D. (2021). COVID-19 risk and outcomes in patients with substance use disorders: analyses from electronic health records in the United States. Molecular Psychiatry, 26(1), 30-39. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-020-00880-7